The Gypsies
1 When spring comes, the drom
(“road”) beckons all Roms, as the Gypsies call themselves. Whether they
are nomads who have stopped for the winter or sedentary Gypsies living
in cities, their hearts are awakened. They believe that all land under
their feel is their own.
2 José,
a Gypsy of Arles, in Provence, once told me about his youth before
World War II, when he traveled with his large family in a horse-drawn
caravan to Switzerland, Germany, the Netherlands, the west coast of
France, through the Pyrenees, Montpelier, and then back to Arles again
by autumn, making the same circuit year after year, selling horses and
rugs and doing metalwork. "We went everywhere. We stopped in the fields,
amused ourselves in the trees. If we wanted a fruit, we ate it. We were
savage. We were free."
3 The
Gypsies, it is thought, wandered out of Central Asia about 4,000 years
ago. They have never stopped moving. They arrived in Europe in the late
Middle Ages, and used the annual religious pilgrimages they found there
as pretexts for large tribal gatherings, since they ordinarily traveled
in small groups to avoid the authorities. At the gatherings, they
conducted family business-baptisms, marriages, trials-and exchanged
news.
4 This
tradition continues today. Every May, Gypsies from all over Europe
gather in the village of Les Saintes Maries-de-la Mer, in the south of
France, to venerate their partron saint, Sara-Kali. The campgrounds are
filled with trailers, clotheslines, and cooking fires. Inside each
caravan, the entire family sleeps crowded together on the floor under
feather quilts. Although they live communally, Gypsies preserve their
privacy through mutual respect and strict codes of behavior; they feel
there is something wrong with a man who needs to hide behind walls.
5 The
Gypsy is happiest in the natural world, where he can hear the rain at
night on his caravan and smell the woods. He lives from day to day, and
he likes uncertainty. He has known practically from infancy that sudden
changes from comfort to discomfort are essential for a healthy life. As a
result, he has a deep sense of self-reliance.
6 Today
many Gypsies have moved into the cities (there are communities in
Boston, New York, Newark, and Los Angeles) or have been forced into
"settlements." But they paint their ceilings blue to remind themselves
of the sky, and they cover their walls with rugs to bring back the
feeling of a tent. "We don't like fancy houses," José says. "We like an
old house with a fireplace for heat and cooking. We eat with the
fingers-no need for forks or spoons. We are free like that, and it is
becauseof this that the Romany will never change. We wil always stay as
we were born."
PATRICIA FOLLMER1
_____________
1"The
Gypsies" by Patricia Follmer. Copyright 1974 by Harper's Magazine.
Reprinted form the July 1974 issue by special permission.
HARBRACE COLLEGE HANDBOOK
ISBN: 0-15-531824-1
|
|
Observe how Patricia Follmer1 effectively arranges and
expresses her ideas as she explains the attitudes and traditions of the
nomadic Gypsies (her central idea). Notice that every paragraph sticks
to the subject and refers to the titles. Give special attention to the
close relationship between the beginning and the ending of the
composition.
|
Planning and Writing the Whole Composition .................................................................................... Arrange and express your ideas effectively.
A
paragraph is usually a series of sentences developing one controlling
idea: A paragraph developed by causal analysis must not only raise the
question why but answer it to the satisfaction. The cause or causes must
satisfactorily explain the result.
Many good paragraphs are
developed not by any one specific method but by a combination of
methods. Some good paragraphs almost defy analysis. The important
consideration is not the specific method used but the adequacy of the
development.
A whole composition is usually a series of
paragraphs developing several closely related facets of one controlling,
or central, idea.
Notice that every paragraph sticks to the
subject and refers to the title. Give special attention to the close
relationship between the beginning and the ending of the composition.
A
unified composition, whether only one paragraph or a series of
paragraphs, does not fall into order by chance. Order is the result of
careful planning.
Choose an appropriate subject and limit it properly.
A subject is properly limited if you can treat it adequately (according to your purpose) in the time and space at your disposal.
Here are two examples of ways that a subject may be limited:
speed skating =>contests on ice => the winter games => the Olympics => Sports
cyclamate-sweetened peaches => cyclamates => additives => food preparation =>Domestic arts
Deciding on the degree of limitation is a matter of the writer’s judgment.
PURPOSE
Before
making a final decision regarding the specific topic, you should
consider your purpose in writing the composition. Suppose, for example,
that you have chosen (or have been assigned) “American Burial Customs”
as a general subject for a short paper. If your main purpose is to
inform the reader, either “Kinds of Floral Arrangements for Coffins” or
“Some Burial Customs Are Dying Out” would be appropriate. To arouse
interest, you might write a story about a person who has trouble
arranging for his or her own burial—perhaps by mail order.
Although
you may have secondary aims, each of the primary purposes you might
select corresponds to one of the four main types of writing as they are
conventionally classified in rhetoric:
Type of writing--------Primary purpose
Exposition...............To inform or explain
Argumentation.........To convince or persuade
Narration.................To entertain or interest
Description..............To describe or picture
Exposition
(often combined with description and/or bits of narration) is the most
common type of nonfiction and the kind most frequently written by
college students. “How-to” compositions, for instance, are expository.
Dealing with facts and ideas, expository compositions may define
identify, classify, illustrate, compare, contrast, or explain a process.
Argumentation
(often blended with exposition, as well as with other types of writing)
is concerned with the validity of a theory, thesis, or proposition and
gives reasons why it is true or false.
Narration
(generally blended with description) focuses on action: simple stories
(like newspaper stories) present events in chronological order;
narratives with plots involve setting, characterization, conflict.
Description
(seldom written independently, but usually a part of narration,
exposition, argument) presents a picture with details that convey a
sensory impression. Few compositions are a single form of discourse.
Most are mixtures in which one form predominates.
CENTRAL IDEA
After
deciding on your purpose, you will find it helpful to set down, in a
single sentence, the central or controlling idea for your paper. In
fact, if in the beginning you can set down a central idea containing
logically arranged main points, you will already have the main plan and
perhaps eliminate the need for a formal outline.
1. Purpose: To inform by pointing out ways to appraise a used car [Exposition]
Title: How to Buy a Good Used Car
Central
idea: Before selecting a used car, a wise buyer will carefully inspect
the car, talk to the former owner of the car, and engage a good mechanic
to examine its motor.
2. Purpose: To convince the reader of a need for change in the examination system [argument]
Title: Why Have Final Examinations?
Central idea: Final examinations should be abolished.
3. Purpose: To tell a story about a true experience [Narration]
Title: Dangerous Waters
Central idea:
Looking for dolphin twenty miles out, I steered my light fishing boat
into dangerous waters and spent hours battling high winds before being
rescued.
4. Purpose: To describe my girlfriend and show how she manages to get her own way with others. [Exposition, description, narration]
Title: Who Can Say No to Her?
Central idea: My girlfriend gets her way because of her “endearing young charms.”
Choose one of the subjects.
1. radio
2. dress
3. endangered species
4. overpopulation-fact or fiction?
The
first step in the preparation of a rough outline is the jotting down of
ideas on the topic. Write strong opinions on the subject and decide to
compare. Next, choose a tentative title, and then jot down ideas related
to the title. Then formulates a central idea, singles out key ideas,
and arrnges them in a logical order, decide on the title, and writes out
the plan.
Use a formal outline of the type specified by instructor.
The types of outlines most commonly used are the sentence outline, the topic outline, and the paragraph outline.
Topic
outlines and sentence outlines have the same parts and the same
groupings; they differ only in the fullness of expression employed. In a
paragraph outline no effort is made to classify the material into major
headings and subheadings; the controlling idea (stated or implied) of
each paragraph is simply listed in the order in which it is to come.
Paragraph outlines are especially helpful in writing short papers. Topic
or sentence outlines may be adapted to papers of any length.
◙ ◙ ◙TOPIC OUTLINEA New Silent GenerationCentral idea:Today's generation is as silent as the 1950s generation but does not have its illusions.
Introduction: The silence on American campuses is disturbing.
I. The silent generation of the 1950s
A. Opportunistic acceptance of world
B: Confidence in self and country
II. The silent generation of today
A: Disillusioning experiences
B: Economic uncertainty
C: Political attitude
Conclusion: This retreat to the 1950s has left an enormous gap in American life.
◙ ◙ ◙SENTENCE OUTLINEA New Silent GenerationCentral idea: Today's generation is as silent as the 1950s generation but does not have its illusions.
Introduction: The silence on American campuses is disturbing.
I. The college generation of the 1950s wa silent.
A. Students opportunistically accepted their world.
B. They felt secure as students and as Americans.
II. Today's generation is silent.
A. Students have lived through disillusioning times.
B. They face great economic uncertainties.
C: They have become disgusted with politics.
Conclusion: This retreat to the 1950s has left an enormous gap in American life.
◙ ◙ ◙PARAGRAPH OUTLINE1. A disturbing silence has fallen over American campuses.
2. Are we back in the 1950?
3. The 1950s college generation accepted the world they lived in.
4. Because of their memories and experiences, today's college students have no such illusions.
5. There is great economic uncertainty.
6. Today's youth are disgusted with and have retreated from politics.
7. This retreat has left a big gap in American life.
◙ ◙ ◙Topic and sentence outlines and indention for parallel structure.Any
intelligible system of notation is acceptable. The one used for both
the topic outline and the sentence outline is in common use. This
system, expanded to show subheadings of the second and third degrees, is
as follows:
I. ........................[Used for major headings]
A. .....................[Used
for subheadings of the first
degree]
B. ......................[Used
for subheadings of the first
degree]
1. .......................[Used
for subheadings of the second
degree]
2. .......................[Used
for subheadings of the second
degree]
a. .....................................[Used
for subheadings of
the
third degree]
b.
................................[Used for subheadings of
the
third degree]
II. .......................
Seldom, however, will a short outline-or even a longer one-need subordination beyond the first or second degree.
Use
parallel structure for parallel parts of the topic outline to clarify
the coordination of parts. In topic outlines, the major headings (I, II,
III, and so on) should be expressed in parallel structure, as should
each group of subheadings. But it is unnecessary to strive for parallel
structure between different groups of subheadings-for example, between
A, B, and C under I and A, B, and C under II. (Parallel structure is not
a concern in either the sentence outline or the paragraph outline.)
◙ ◙ ◙EFFECTIVE BEGINNNGS AND ENDINGS Every composition needs an effective beginning and ending.
One
of the best ways to begin is with a sentence that not only arouses the
reader's interest but also sets forth the first main point and starts
its development.
Another way to begin a composition is to write
an introductory paragraph that arouses interest and states the central
idea of the composition but does not start the development of the first
main point.
Still another way to begin is with a question. The
answer to it may set forth the main points to be discussed later. A
transitional paragraph may intervene between the introduction and the
discussion of the first main point.
A composition should end; it
should not merely stop. Two ways to end a composition effectively are to
stress the final point of the main discussion by using an emphatic last
sentence and to write a strong concluding paragraph. Often a concluding
paragraph clinches, restates, or stresses the importance of the central
idea or thesis of the composition. An effective ending may also present
a summary, a thought-provoking question, a solution to a problem, or a
suggestion or challenge.
Caution: Do not devote
too much space to introductions and conclusions. A short paper often has
only one paragraph for a beginning or an ending; frequently one
sentence for each is adequate. Remember that the bulk of your
composition should be the development of the central idea, the
discussion of the main headings and subheadings in your outline.
Planning and Writing the Whole Composition.................................................................................... Arrange and express your ideas effectively.
A
paragraph is usually a series of sentences developing one controlling
idea: A paragraph developed by causal analysis must not only raise the
question why but answer it to the satisfaction. The cause or causes must
satisfactorily explain the result.
Many good paragraphs are
developed not by any one specific method but by a combination of
methods. Some good paragraphs almost defy analysis. The important
consideration is not the specific method used but the adequacy of the
development.
A whole composition is usually a series of
paragraphs developing several closely related facets of one controlling,
or central, idea.
Notice that every paragraph sticks to the
subject and refers to the title. Give special attention to the close
relationship between the beginning and the ending of the composition.
A
unified composition, whether only one paragraph or a series of
paragraphs, does not fall into order by chance. Order is the result of
careful planning.
Choose an appropriate subject and limit it properly.
A subject is properly limited if you can treat it adequately (according to your purpose) in the time and space at your disposal.
Here are two examples of ways that a subject may be limited:
speed skating =>contests on ice => the winter games => the Olympics => Sports
cyclamate-sweetened peaches => cyclamates => additives => food preparation =>Domestic arts
Deciding on the degree of limitation is a matter of the writer’s judgment.
PURPOSE
Before
making a final decision regarding the specific topic, you should
consider your purpose in writing the composition. Suppose, for example,
that you have chosen (or have been assigned) “American Burial Customs”
as a general subject for a short paper. If your main purpose is to
inform the reader, either “Kinds of Floral Arrangements for Coffins” or
“Some Burial Customs Are Dying Out” would be appropriate. To arouse
interest, you might write a story about a person who has trouble
arranging for his or her own burial—perhaps by mail order.
Although
you may have secondary aims, each of the primary purposes you might
select corresponds to one of the four main types of writing as they are
conventionally classified in rhetoric:
Type of writing--------Primary purpose
Exposition...............To inform or explain
Argumentation.........To convince or persuade
Narration.................To entertain or interest
Description..............To describe or picture
Exposition
(often combined with description and/or bits of narration) is the most
common type of nonfiction and the kind most frequently written by
college students. “How-to” compositions, for instance, are expository.
Dealing with facts and ideas, expository compositions may define
identify, classify, illustrate, compare, contrast, or explain a process.
Argumentation
(often blended with exposition, as well as with other types of writing)
is concerned with the validity of a theory, thesis, or proposition and
gives reasons why it is true or false.
Narration
(generally blended with description) focuses on action: simple stories
(like newspaper stories) present events in chronological order;
narratives with plots involve setting, characterization, conflict.
Description
(seldom written independently, but usually a part of narration,
exposition, argument) presents a picture with details that convey a
sensory impression. Few compositions are a single form of discourse.
Most are mixtures in which one form predominates.
CENTRAL IDEA
After
deciding on your purpose, you will find it helpful to set down, in a
single sentence, the central or controlling idea for your paper. In
fact, if in the beginning you can set down a central idea containing
logically arranged main points, you will already have the main plan and
perhaps eliminate the need for a formal outline.
1. Purpose: To inform by pointing out ways to appraise a used car [Exposition]
Title: How to Buy a Good Used Car
Central
idea: Before selecting a used car, a wise buyer will carefully inspect
the car, talk to the former owner of the car, and engage a good mechanic
to examine its motor.
2. Purpose: To convince the reader of a need for change in the examination system [argument]
Title: Why Have Final Examinations?
Central idea: Final examinations should be abolished.
3. Purpose: To tell a story about a true experience [Narration]
Title: Dangerous Waters
Central idea:
Looking for dolphin twenty miles out, I steered my light fishing boat
into dangerous waters and spent hours battling high winds before being
rescued.
4. Purpose: To describe my girlfriend and show how she manages to get her own way with others. [Exposition, description, narration]
Title: Who Can Say No to Her?
Central idea: My girlfriend gets her way because of her “endearing young charms.”
Choose one of the subjects.
1. radio
2. dress
3. endangered species
4. overpopulation-fact or fiction?
The
first step in the preparation of a rough outline is the jotting down of
ideas on the topic. Write strong opinions on the subject and decide to
compare. Next, choose a tentative title, and then jot down ideas related
to the title. Then formulates a central idea, singles out key ideas,
and arrnges them in a logical order, decide on the title, and writes out
the plan.
Use a formal outline of the type specified by instructor.
The types of outlines most commonly used are the sentence outline, the topic outline, and the paragraph outline.
Topic
outlines and sentence outlines have the same parts and the same
groupings; they differ only in the fullness of expression employed. In a
paragraph outline no effort is made to classify the material into major
headings and subheadings; the controlling idea (stated or implied) of
each paragraph is simply listed in the order in which it is to come.
Paragraph outlines are especially helpful in writing short papers. Topic
or sentence outlines may be adapted to papers of any length.
◙ ◙ ◙TOPIC OUTLINEA New Silent GenerationCentral idea:Today's generation is as silent as the 1950s generation but does not have its illusions.
Introduction: The silence on American campuses is disturbing.
I. The silent generation of the 1950s
A. Opportunistic acceptance of world
B: Confidence in self and country
II. The silent generation of today
A: Disillusioning experiences
B: Economic uncertainty
C: Political attitude
Conclusion: This retreat to the 1950s has left an enormous gap in American life.
◙ ◙ ◙SENTENCE OUTLINEA New Silent GenerationCentral idea: Today's generation is as silent as the 1950s generation but does not have its illusions.
Introduction: The silence on American campuses is disturbing.
I. The college generation of the 1950s wa silent.
A. Students opportunistically accepted their world.
B. They felt secure as students and as Americans.
II. Today's generation is silent.
A. Students have lived through disillusioning times.
B. They face great economic uncertainties.
C: They have become disgusted with politics.
Conclusion: This retreat to the 1950s has left an enormous gap in American life.
◙ ◙ ◙PARAGRAPH OUTLINE1. A disturbing silence has fallen over American campuses.
2. Are we back in the 1950?
3. The 1950s college generation accepted the world they lived in.
4. Because of their memories and experiences, today's college students have no such illusions.
5. There is great economic uncertainty.
6. Today's youth are disgusted with and have retreated from politics.
7. This retreat has left a big gap in American life.
◙ ◙ ◙Topic and sentence outlines and indention for parallel structure.Any
intelligible system of notation is acceptable. The one used for both
the topic outline and the sentence outline is in common use. This
system, expanded to show subheadings of the second and third degrees, is
as follows:
I. ........................[Used for major headings]
A. .....................[Used
for subheadings of the first
degree]
B. ......................[Used
for subheadings of the first
degree]
1. .......................[Used
for subheadings of the second
degree]
2. .......................[Used
for subheadings of the second
degree]
a. .....................................[Used
for subheadings of
the
third degree]
b.
................................[Used for subheadings of
the
third degree]
II. .......................
Seldom, however, will a short outline-or even a longer one-need subordination beyond the first or second degree.
Use
parallel structure for parallel parts of the topic outline to clarify
the coordination of parts. In topic outlines, the major headings (I, II,
III, and so on) should be expressed in parallel structure, as should
each group of subheadings. But it is unnecessary to strive for parallel
structure between different groups of subheadings-for example, between
A, B, and C under I and A, B, and C under II. (Parallel structure is not
a concern in either the sentence outline or the paragraph outline.)
◙ ◙ ◙EFFECTIVE BEGINNNGS AND ENDINGS Every composition needs an effective beginning and ending.
One
of the best ways to begin is with a sentence that not only arouses the
reader's interest but also sets forth the first main point and starts
its development.
Another way to begin a composition is to write
an introductory paragraph that arouses interest and states the central
idea of the composition but does not start the development of the first
main point.
Still another way to begin is with a question. The
answer to it may set forth the main points to be discussed later. A
transitional paragraph may intervene between the introduction and the
discussion of the first main point.
A composition should end; it
should not merely stop. Two ways to end a composition effectively are to
stress the final point of the main discussion by using an emphatic last
sentence and to write a strong concluding paragraph. Often a concluding
paragraph clinches, restates, or stresses the importance of the central
idea or thesis of the composition. An effective ending may also present
a summary, a thought-provoking question, a solution to a problem, or a
suggestion or challenge.
Caution: Do not devote
too much space to introductions and conclusions. A short paper often has
only one paragraph for a beginning or an ending; frequently one
sentence for each is adequate. Remember that the bulk of your
composition should be the development of the central idea, the
discussion of the main headings and subheadings in your outline.
Tips for Memo Reports
• Use memo format for most short (eight or fewer papers) informal reports within an organization.
• Leave side margins of 1 to 11/4 inches.
• Sign your initials on the FROM line.
• Use an informal, conversational style.
• Include talking (descriptive) or functional side headings to organize a report into logical divisions.
• For a receptive audience, put recommendations first.
• For an unreceptive audience, put recommendations last.
|
Monday, August 20, 2012 2:26:50 AM
Writing Composition
Outlines and Headings
Most writers agree that the clearest way to show the organization of a
report topic is by recording its divisions in an outline. Although the
outline is not part of the final report, it is a valuable tool of the
writer. It reveals at a glance the overall organization of the report.
Outlining involves dividing a topic into major sections and supporting
those with details.
Rarely is a real outline so perfectly balanced; some sections are
usually longer than other. Remember, though, not to put a single topic
under a major component. If you have only one subpoint, integrate it
with the main item above it or reorganize. Use details, Illustrations,
and evidence to support subpoints.
The main points used to outline a report often become the main headings
of the written report. Formatting those headings depends on what level
they represent. Major headings are centered and typed in bold font.
Second-level heađings start at the left margin, and third-level headings
are indented and become part of a paragraph.
|
****
Topic and Sentence Outlines
and
Indention for Parallel Structure.
Use parallel structure for parallel parts of the topic outline to
clarify the coordination of parts. In topic outlines, the major headings
(I, II, III, and so on) should be expressed in parallel structure, as
should each group of subheadings.
Any intelligible system of notation is acceptable. The one used for both
the topic outline and the sentence outline is in common use. This
system, expanded to show subheadings of the second and third degrees, is
as follows:
I. .......................[Used for major headings]
A. .....................[Used for
subheadings of the
first
degree]
B. .....................[Used for
subheadings of the
first
degree]
1. ..................[Used
for subheadings of the
second
degree]
2. ..................[Used
for subheadings of the
second
degree]
a. ...............[Used
for subheadings of the
third
degree]
b. ...............[Used
for subheadings of the
third
degree]
II. .......................
|
Outlines and Parallel Structure
I. ............................................................
A. ............................................................
B. ............................................................
C. ............................................................
D. ............................................................
II. ............................................................
A. ............................................................
III. ............................................................
A. ............................................................
IV. ............................................................
A. ............................................................
1. ............................................................
B. ............................................................
1. ............................................................
a. ............................................................
b. ............................................................
c. ............................................................
C. ............................................................
1. ............................................................
2. ............................................................
V. ............................................................
A. ............................................................
B. ............................................................
C. ............................................................
|
OUTLINE
The Rise of the New Deal Order
I. Your musical introduction
A. Row, Row, Row With Roosevelt
B. Roosevelt, Garner, and Me
C. Happy Days Are Here Again
D. F.R.'s First Inauguration Speech
II. Historical Question
A. Was the New Deal a radical social reform program?
III. Thesis
A.
Roosevelt's haphazard program of New Deal reforms brought radically new
approaches to American social reform. The expansion of the federal
government, redefinitons of poverty andi its causes, as well as a social
welfare system that has become a stple of all subsequent presidential
administrations testify to the New Deal's seminal importance in American
political and social life.
IV. The "New" Deal
A. The Expansion of the Federal Government
1. The 100 Days and Alphabet Soup
B. Redefinitions of Poverty
1.
The Federal Emergency Relief Administration
a.
Harry Hopkins, Spending To Save
b.
Local government
c.
A New Deal for Blacks?
C. Social Welfare
1. The Second New Deal
2. The Social Security of 1935
V. Suggestions for further reading include:
A. Michael Moore's video Roger and Me offers great insights into 1930s working-class history. Rent it at your local video store.
B. Lizbeth Cohen, Making a New Deal: Industrial Workers in Chicago, 1919-1930
C. Alan Brinkley, Voices of Protest: Huey Long, Father Coughlin, and the Great Depression
|
Outlines and Parallel Structure
bgcolor="#e2e8d6"
font style="color: rgb(51, 102, 102)
Square Brackets [ ]
Origin: Development of the Language
In college dictionaries the origin of the word—also called its
derivation or etymology—is shown in square brackets. For example, after
expel might be this information: “[< ex- out + pellere to drive, thrust].” This means that expel is derived from (<) the Latin (L) word expellere,
which is made up of ex-, meaning “out,” and the combining form peller,
meaning “to drive or thrust.” Breaking up a word, when possible, into
prefix (and also suffix, if any) and combining form, as in the case of
expel, will often help to get at the basic meaning of a word.
The bracketed information given by a good dictionary is especially rich
in meaning when considered in relation to the historical development of
our language. English is one of the Indo-European (IE)2[1]
language, a group of languages apparently derived from a common source.
Within this group of languages, many of the more familiar words are
remarkably alike. Our word mother, for example, is mater in Latin (L),
meter in Greek (Gk.), and matar in ancient Persian and in the Sanskrit
(Skt.) of India. Words in different languages that apparently descend
from a common parent language are called cognates. The large number of
cognates and the many correspondences in sound and structure in most of
the languages of Europe and some languages of Asia indicate that they
are derived from the common language that linguists call Indo-European,
which it is believed was spoken in parts of Europe about five thousand
years ago. By the opening of the Christian era the speakers of this
language had spread over most of Europe and as far east as India, and
the original Indo-European had developed into eight or nine language
families. Of these, the chief ones that influenced English were the
Hellenic (Greek) group on the eastern Mediterranean, the Italic (Latin)
on the central and western Mediterranean and Germanic in northwestern
Europe.
English is descended from the Germanic. Two thousand years ago the
Hellenic, the Italic, and the Germanic branches of Indo-European each
comprised a more or less unified language group. After the fall of the
Roman Empire in the fifth century, the several Latin-speaking divisions
developed independently into the modern Romance languages, chief of
which are Italian, French, and Spanish. Long before the fall of Rome the
Germanic group was breaking up into three families:
(1) East Germanic, represented by the Goths, who were to play a large
part in the history of the last century of the Roman Empire before
losing themselves in its ruins;
(2) North Germanic, or Old Norse (ON), from which we have modern Danish
(Dan.) and Swedish (Sw.), Norwegian (Norw.) and Icelandic (Icel.); and
(3) West Germanic, the direct ancestor of English, Dutch (Du.), and German (Ger.).
The English language may be said to have begun about the middle of the
fifth century, when the West Germanic Angles, Saxons, and Jutes began
the conquest of what is now England and either absorbed or drove out the
Celtic-speaking inhabitants. (Celtic—from which Scots Gaelic, Irish
Gaelic, Welsh, and other languages later developed—is another member of
the indo-European family.) The next six or seven hundred years are known
as the Old English (OE) or Anglo-Saxon (AS) period of the English
language. The fifty or sixty thousand words then in the language was
chiefly Anglo-Saxon, with a small mixture of Old Norse words as a result
of the Danish (Viking) conquests of England beginning in the eighth
century. But the Old Norse words were so much like the Anglo-Saxon that
they cannot always be distinguished. The transitional period
from Old English to Modern English—about 1100 to 1500—is known as
Middle English (ME). The Norman Conquest began in 1066. The Normans, or
“Northmen,” had settled in northern France during the Viking invasions
and had adopted Old French (OF) in place of their native Old Norse.
Then, crossing over to England by the thousands, they made French the
language of the king’s court in London and of the ruling classes—both
French and English—throughout the land, while the masses continued to
speak English. Only toward the end of the fifteenth century did English
become once more the common language of all classes. But the language
that emerged at that time had lost most of its Anglo-Saxon inflections
and had taken on thousands of French words (derived originally from
Latin). Nonetheless, it was still basically English, not French, in its
structure.
The marked and steady development of the English language (until it was
partly stabilized by printing, which was introduced in London in 1476)
is suggested by the following passages, two from Old English and two
from Middle English. A striking feature of Modern English
(that is, English since 1500) is its immense vocabulary. As already
noted, Old English used some fifty or sixty thousand words, very largely
native Anglo-Saxon; Middle English used perhaps a hundred thousand
words, many taken through the French from Latin and others taken
directly from Latin; and unabridged dictionaries today list over four
times as many. To make up this tremendous word hoard, we have borrowed
most heavily from Latin, but we have drawn some words from almost every
know language. English writers of the sixteenth century were especially
eager to interlace their works with words from Latin authors. And, as
the English pushed out to colonize and to trade in many parts of the
globe, they brought home new words as well as goods. Modern science and
technology have drawn heavily from the Greek. As a result of all this
borrowing, English has become the richest, most cosmopolitan of all
languages.
In the process of enlarging our vocabulary we have lost most of our
original Anglo-Saxon words. But those that are left make up the most
familiar, most useful part of our vocabulary. Practically all our simple
verbs, our articles, conjunctions, prepositions, and pronouns are
native Anglo-Saxon; and so are many of our familiar nouns, adjectives,
and adverbs. Every speaker and writer uses these native words over and
over, much more frequently than the borrowed words. Indeed, if every
word is counted every time it is used, the percentage of native words
runs very high—usually between 70 and 90 percent. Milton’s percentage
was 81, Tennyson’s 88, Shakespeare’s about 90, and that of the King
James Bible about 94. English has been enriched by its extensive
borrowings without losing its individuality; it is still fundamentally
the English language.
__________________
[1] /2 The parenthetical abbreviations for languages
here and on the next few pages are those commonly used in bracketed
derivations in dictionaries.
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Memorandum
[mem-uh-ran-duh m]
mem·o·ran·dum
ˌmeməˈrandəm/Submit
noun
a written message, especially in business or diplomacy.
"he told them of his decision in a memorandum"
synonyms: message, communication, note, email, letter, missive, directive; More
a note or record made for future use.
"the two countries signed a memorandum of understanding on economic cooperation"
synonyms: message, communication, note, email, letter, missive, directive; More
LAW
a document recording the terms of a contract or other legal details.
Although e-mail is more often used, hard-copy memos are still useful for
important internal messages that re quire a permanent record or
formality.
MEMO TO: Diana E. McNabb, City Manager
FROM: Paul Dollar, Street Department Director
DATE: October 9, 2010
SUBJECT: Deer Run Street Problem
As you know, there has been extensive development of the housing area on
the East Side, commonly known as Deer Run. The project coordinator
informed me just the other day that about five new homes are started
each week.
A petition has been received from residents of the area stating that
builders have been ignoring city regulations relating to the banning of
lugged wheels from city streets. When moving a short distance,
bulldozers commonly are seen moving on the streets rather than being
transported on trailers. A copy of the petition is attached.
The residents have also expressed concerns over the following service interruptions:
1. Television cable was severed five times in one week.
2. Telephone service was interrupted four times in two weeks due to damage to the main telephone line.
3. City water lines were broken two times with interruption of water service for extended periods of time.
4. Electric service is frequently interrupted.
As this may be a delicate matter, I felt that I should contact you
before informing the city attorney’s office about the matter. I am
hopeful that you will provide appropriate advice to me within a day or
two.
ltn
Attachment
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MEMO TO: Luis Torres, General Manager
FROM: Jonathan R. Evans, Assistant Marketing Manager
DATE: January 12, 200x
SUBJECT:
An Analysis of the Scope and Effectiveness of
Online
Advertising
Here is the report analyzing the scope and effectiveness of Internet advertising that you requested on January 5, 200x.
The report predicts that the total value of the business-to-business
e-commerce market will reach $1.3 trillion by 2003, up from $190 billion
in 1999. New technologies aimed at increasing Internet ad interactivity
and the adoption of standards for advertising response measurement and
tracking will contribute to this increase. Unfortunately, as discussed
in this report, the use of "rich media" and interactivity in Web
advertising will create its own set of problems.
I enjoyed working on this assignment, Luis, and I learn quite a bit
from my analysis of the situation. Please let me know if you have any
questions about the report.
plw
Attachment
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A
letter or memo of transmittal announces the report topic and explain
who authorized it. It briefly describes the project and previews the
conclusions, if the reader is supportive. Such messages generally close
by expressing appreciation for the assignment, suggesting follow-up
actions, acknowledging the help of others, or offering to answer
questions. The margins for the transmittal should be the same as tor the
report, about 1 to 11/4 inches on all sides. The letter should be left-justified. A page number is optional.
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